Iran

Iran is covered here in 6 connected parts: Iran, Shia–Sunni relations, Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam, Shia Crescent, Shia Islamism, History of shia iran.

Iran

Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and historically known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west; Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest; the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast; Afghanistan to the east; Pakistan to the southeast; and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a population of over 92 million, Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population.^[1]

Prehistory

The earliest known presence of hominins in Iran dates to around 800,000 years ago, in the Middle Paleolithic. Many Middle Paleolithic sites have been discovered, mainly in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran and some sites associated with Neanderthals. The Zarzian culture is documented in Iran during the Epipaleolithic (25,000–11,500 years ago).^[1]

Antiquity

Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC, including the Jiroft culture in southeastern Iran. Inscriptions in the Proto-Elamite script, which predates cuneiform, have been found from the early third millennium BC. The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as the Kassites, Mannaeans, and Gutians.^[1]

Medieval period

Most of the Sasanian Empire's lifespan was overshadowed by the frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, a continuation of the Roman–Parthian Wars. The last of these wars ultimately contributed to the empire's fall, which culminated with the Islamic conquest of Persia. The Rashidun Caliphate conquered the Sasanian Empire between 632 and 654.^[1]

Early modern period

The Safavid Empire, founded by Ismail I (r. 1505–1524), is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history. While Safavid Iran predated the concept of the nation-state as such, it established the basis for the modern state of Iran.^[1]

Islamic Revolution

The protests against the Shah grew to include more than 10% of the country; it is rare for revolutions to involve even 1% of a country's population. Frustration with the Shah was so great that even secular and leftist groups supported Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution, despite sharing none of his political positions. Under increasing pressure, the Shah eventually fled Iran, charging the interim Regency Council with his duties until a new government was formed.^[1]

Geography

Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 mi2), making it is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia, the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan, and the Republic of Azerbaijan; to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan; to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan; to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq and Turkey.^[1]

Climate

Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid to subtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests. On the north edge of Iran, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).^[1]

Biodiversity

Nearly 60% of Iran is mountainous, and less than 10% is forested. About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation. Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: the Hyrcanian region which forms the green belt of the north side of Iran; the Turan region, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran; the Zagros region, which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region, which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; the Arasbarani region, which contains rare and unique species.^[1]

Supreme Leader

The Supreme Leader, the Rahbar, the Leader of the Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is the head of state and is responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to the Rahbar. Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar's agreement, who has the ultimate say on foreign policy.^[1]

Related: Shia–Sunni relations · Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam · Shia Crescent · Iran Hormuz Strait live: latest updates and reaction · Iran Island live: latest updates and reaction

External references: ^[1][2][3]

Shia–Sunni relations

The succession to Muhammad in 632 led the Muslims to be split into two camps: the Sunnis, who believed that the caliphs of the Islamic community should be chosen by a council, as in Saqifa; and a second group, the Shia, who believed that Muhammad had named his successor to be Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law. Today there are differences in religious practice and jurisprudence, traditions, and customs between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Although all Muslim groups consider the Quran to be divine, Sunni and Shia have different opinions on interpretations (hadith) of the Quran.^[4]

Demographics

Sunni Muslims are the vast majority of Muslims in most Muslim communities in Central Asia (including China). Within Shia Islam about 85% are Twelver, and within Twelver Shia, the overwhelming majority follow the Usuli school of jurisprudence. In Iran, an officially Shia country since 1501, around 90–95% of Muslims are Shia.^[4]

Mahdi

The Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam. While Shia and Sunnis differ on the nature of the Mahdi, many members of both groups believe that the Mahdi will appear at the end of the world to bring about a perfect and just Islamic society.^[4]

Hadith

The Shia accept some of the same hadiths of Muhammad used by Sunnis as part of the sunnah and the basis of divine law and religious practice. In addition, they consider the sayings of Ahl al-Bayt that are not attributed directly to Muhammad as hadiths. Shia do not accept many Sunni hadiths unless they are also recorded in Shia sources or the methodology of how they were recorded can be proven.^[4]

Sufism

Shiism and Sufism are said to share a number of hallmarks: Belief in an inner meaning to the Quran, special status for some mortals (saints for Sufi, Imams for Shia), as well as veneration of Ali and Muhammad's family.^[4]

Pillars of faith

The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: أركان الإسلام) is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim and are held by both Sunni and Shia. These duties are Shahada (profession of faith), Salat (prayers), Zakāt (giving of alms), Sawm (fasting, specifically during Ramadan) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). In addition, Shia theology has two concepts that define religion as a whole.^[4]

Practices

Many distinctions can be made between Sunnis and Shiaīs through observation alone:^[4]

Growth in sectarianism

Among the explanations for the growth in sectarianism are conspiracies by outside forces to divide Muslims, the recent Islamic revival and increased religious purity and consequent takfir, upheaval, destruction and loss of power of Sunni caused by the US invasion of Iraq, and sectarianism generated by Arab regimes defending themselves against the mass uprisings of the Arab Spring.^[4]

Outside conspiracies

Many in the Muslim world explain the bloodshed as the work of conspiracies by outside forces—"the forces of hegemony and Zionism which aim to weaken [Arabs]" (Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Yusuf al-Qaradawi), unspecified "enemies" (Iran president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad), or "oppressive pressure by the imperialist front." (Mahmoud Ahmadinejad).^[4]

Related: Iran · Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam · Shia Crescent · Shia–Sunni relations · Sunni Islam

External references: ^[4][5][6]

Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam

Following their rise to power in Iran in the 16th century, the Safavid dynasty initiated a campaign of forced conversion against the Iranian populace, seeking to replace Sunni Islam, whose Shafi'i school of jurisprudence pervaded the country, as the denomination of the majority of the population. Over the course of three centuries, the Safavids (who were Twelver Shias) heavily persecuted Sunni Muslims, Jews, Christians, and other religious groups, eventually transforming Iran into a bastion of Shia Islam. This process led to hostilities with Iran's Sunni-majority neighbours, most notably the Ottoman Empire.^[7]

Background

After the Islamic prophet Muhammad died in 632, a group of followers (Shia) of his cousin Ali proclaimed the latter as the legitimate heir and caliph. But the hopes of this group were not achieved for thirty years, during which time Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman—three of the Prophet's Companions—became caliphs. Sunni Islam was eventually represented by these caliphs.^[7]

Under Ismail I

During the reign of the first Safavid shah (king), Ismail I (r. 1501–1524), the military, political, and religious goals of the Safavids became unified. In 1501, he proclaimed himself the King of Kings and the creator of a new Shia state, thus creating a strong ideological foundation.^[7]

Under Tahmasp I

In 1524, Ismail I was succeeded by his son Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576). It was during his rule that Shia Islam in Iran solidified itself.^[7]

Under Ismail II

Tahmasp I was succeeded by his son Ismail II (r. 1576–1577), who immediately decided to overturn many of the religious policies established by his father and grandfather. He opted for a kinder approach toward Sunnis and attempted to halt the anti-Sunni propaganda that had gained popularity under his father.^[7]

Under Mohammad Khodabanda and Abbas the Great

Ismail II was succeeded by Tahmasp's eldest son, Mohammad Khodabanda (r. 1578–1587), under whom Twelver Shia Islam was restored as the official religion of the realm. By the early reign of Abbas the Great in the end of the 16th century, the majority of Iranians had accepted Shia Islam and virtually, Sunni Islam had disappeared from the central Safavid provinces, only remaining on the outskirts of the realm, such as in Kurdistan, Afghanistan and Baluchistan.^[7]

Under Soltan Hoseyn

The religiosity of Soltan Hoseyn (r. 1694–1722) is implied through the numerous awqaf he gifted. He may not have been as intolerant as he commonly is described, as implied by his trust in the Sunni grand vizier Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani, his interest when visiting to the Armenian churches of New Jolfa, as well as the numerous decrees (farman) he declared, which protected the Christian population of Iran and allowed Catholic missionaries to perform their work.^[7]

The status, practices and reception of the Shia ulama

Even after two centuries of Persianization, the cultural orientation of the Shia ulama remained largely unchanged. Masquerading with their madrasa (religious school) education, they displayed an anti-intellectual attitude through a strong focus on hadith, conservatism, ritualistic practices in Shia Islam, opposition against diversity, and a heavy emphasis on the stories of the Imams' suffering. It was characteristic of their sociocultural stance that they were hostile to Persian literary and artistic endeavors and treated even ordinary Shia Muslims with disrespect.^[7]

Immigration of Arab Shia scholars from Jabal Amil

The Arab Shia scholars of Jabal Amil in Southern Lebanon proved to be eager allies and supporters for Ismail I and his advisors. After years of persecution in their own country by the Mamluks and then the Ottomans, they found a benefactor in Ismail I and a place of luxury and esteem in Safavid Iran. The Amilis (and Arab scholars from other regions) were intentionally placed in important religious and quasi-administrative positions by the early Safavid Shahs, so that they could spread their well-defined Islamic creed rooted in the Shia school of thought (madhhab).^[7]

Shia scholars from Mazandaran, including the Mar'ashis

In the 1530s and 1540s, the Safavid household was under heavy influence by the Uskuya sayyids of Tabriz. A new network of sayyids, mostly from Mazandaran, rose to prominence in politics and administration with the capital shift to Qazvin in the 1550s. In recent scholarship, greater attention has been given to the increasing influence of the Mazandarani religious elite within the Safavid state, a subject historically overshadowed by the focus on theologians from Jabal Amil.^[7]

Related: Iran · Shia–Sunni relations · Shia Crescent · Iran Hormuz Strait live: latest updates and reaction · Iran Island live: latest updates and reaction

External references: ^[7][8]

Shia Crescent

The Shia Crescent is the notionally crescent-shaped region of the West Asia where the majority population is Shia or where there is a strong Shia minority in the population. In recent years the term has been used in Western political discourse to identify areas under Iranian influence or control and soft power, as Iran has sought to unite all Shia Muslims under one banner. On the other hand, this concept shows the increasing political weight of Shia in Western Asia.^[9]

Overview

The term was coined in 2004 by King Abdullah II of Jordan at a time when Iran was reportedly interfering in Iraq in the run-up to the January 2005 parliamentary elections. This was in the context of a threatened, later realised, boycott of the elections by Sunnis in Iraq potentially leading to a Shia-dominated government and the assumption that a Shia Iraq might fall under the influence of Shia Iran. The suggestion was that the common religion gives good potential for cooperation between Iran, Iraq, Alawite-dominated Syria and the politically powerful Shia militia Hezbollah in Lebanon; as well, the suggestion was that these others would be proxies for Iran in a regional power play.^[9]

Demographic transformations and Shiization

In 2016, Hussain Ibrahim Qutrib, an associate professor of geomorphology at the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, wrote an article about the demographic changes that have occurred in "Useful Syria" as a result of the Syrian Civil War. Specifically, Qutrib defined "Useful Syria" similar to how Syrian President Bashar al-Assad defined this term in early 2016—as in, including the Syrian governorates of Damascus, Rif Dimashq, Homs, Hama, Latakia, and Tartus.^[9]

Related: Iran · Shia–Sunni relations · Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam · Shia–Sunni relations

External references: ^[9][10][11]

Shia Islamism

Shia Islamism is the implementation of Shia Islam in politics and opposition to Sunni Islamism. Most study and reporting on Islamism has been focused on Sunni Islamist movements. Initially a very small ideology, it gained popularity after the Iranian Revolution (1978–1979) led by Ruhollah Khomeini, whose Shia Islamist policies became known as Khomeinism.^[12]

Islamism—definitions, variations

While precise descriptions and definitions of Islamism vary, they include the following:^[12]

Islamism and Khomeini

Khomeini's form of Islamism was unique not only for being a powerful political movement which successfully came to power, but for having completely swept away the old regime, created a new one with a new constitution, new institutions and a new concept of governance (the velayat-e-faqih). A historical event, it changed militant Islam from a topic of limited impact and interest, to one that few inside or outside the Muslim world were unaware.^[12]

Traditional and Islamist Shi'ism

Historian Ervand Abrahamian argues that Khomeini's Islamist movement not only created a new form of Shiism, but converted traditional Shi'ism "from a conservative quietist faith" into "a militant political ideology that challenged both the imperial powers and the country's upper class".^[12]

Pre-Islamist, traditional Shi'ism

Traditionally, the term Shahid in Shi'ism referred to "the famous Shi'i saints who in obeying God's will, had gone to their deaths", such as the "Five Martyrs".^[12]

Post 1970 Khomeini

In late 1969, Khomeini's view of society and politics changed dramatically. What prompted this change is unclear as he did not footnote his work or admit to drawing ideas from others, or for that matter even admit he had changed his views.^[12]

Shia Islamism outside Iran

Vali Nasr notes the success of Hezbollah suicide attacks as part of the "cult of martyrdom" that had started with suicidal human wave attacks by the Islamic Republic of Iran against Iraq in the Iran–Iraq War. Hezbollah's "martyrdom operations" killed approximately 600 Israeli soldiers in Southern Lebanon between 1982 and 1984, a relatively large number for Israel, a small country, and which "did much to help force Israel out" of Lebanon.^[12]

Sunni and Shi'i Islamism

Prior to the 1979 Islamist Revolution in Iran, "the general consensus" among religious historians was that "Sunni Islam(ism) was more activist, political, and revolutionary than the allegedly quietist and apolitical Shia Islam", who shunned politics while waiting for the 12th Imam to reappear. After the Iranian revolution there was a reversal, and with a new consensus that Shia Islam was a "religion of protest", looking to the Battle of Karbala as an example of "standing up against injustice even if it required martyrdom".^[12]

Similarities, influence, cooperation

Arguably the first prominent Islamist, Rashid Rida, published a series of articles in Al-Manar titled "The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate" during 1922–1923. In this highly influential treatise, Rida advocated for the restoration of the Caliphate ruled by Muslim jurists and proposed Islamic Salafiyya movement revival measures across the globe to reform education and purify Islam. Ayatullah Khomeini's manifesto Islamic Government, Guardianship of the jurist, was greatly influenced by Rida's book (Persian: اسلام ناب) and by his analysis of the post-colonial Muslim world.^[12]

Pre-modern background

There are different theories as to when the ruling concept of Ayatollah Khomeini and the Islamic Republic of Iran—that Islamic jurists ought to govern until the return of the Imam Mahdi—first appeared. Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi (and Ervand Abrahamian), insists it was a revolutionary advance developed by Imam Khomeini.^[12]

Related: Iran · Shia–Sunni relations · Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam · Shia–Sunni relations

External references: ^[12][13][14]

History of shia iran

Early and pre-modern history

The origin of Shia Islam arose in response to the succession to Muhammad and whether Ali ibn Abi Talib or a more experienced member of the Quraysh tribe should succeed. The concept of Shi'ism further crystallized around events at the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) where Husayn ibn Ali, the son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad, was killed alongside many of his supporters. Thus a political split became a far more personal one, marked by blood feud, and a cause for further divergence.^[4]

Related: Iran · Shia–Sunni relations · Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam · Iran Hormuz Strait live: latest updates and reaction · Iran Island live: latest updates and reaction

External references: ^[4][15][16]